| Question | Answer |
| anaphylactic shock | Mast cells release inflammatory chemicals very suddenly. Blood vessels dilate abruptly, causing a rapid, potentially fatal drop in blood pressure |
| antihistamines | Drugs that interfere with histamine's action and give temporary relief from an allergy |
| later exposure to allergen | 1. Allergen binds to antibodies attached to mast cells. 2. Mast cells release histamine, which triggers the allergic symptoms |
| mast cells | Body cells that produce histamine and other chemicals the trigger the inflammatory response |
| sensitization allergies | Person first exposed to allergen. 1. Allergen binds to B cells. 2. B cells proliferate through clonal selection and secrete large amounts of antibodies to this allergen. 3. Antibodies attach to receptor proteins on Mast Cells |
| allergic reactions | Typically very rapid in response to tiny amounts of allergen. Can occur in many parts of the body such as the nasal passages, bronchi and skin |
| allergies | Hypersensitive responses to antigens in our surroundings |
| allergies | Hypersensitive responses to antigens in our surroundings |
| immunodeficiency diseases | Variety of defects. Lack one or more of the components of the immune system. Can be inborn or acquired |
| autoimmune diseases | Result when the immune system goes awry and turns against some of the body's own molecules |
| AIDS (acquired immunodeficiency syndrome) | Results from HIV (human immunodeficiency virus). Attacks helper T cells. Depletes both cell-mediated immune response and humoral immune response. Mutates frequently make it hard to treat |
| interleukin-2 | Makes helper T cell itself grow and divide, producing both memory cells and additional active helper T cell. Positive-feedback loop amplifies the cell-mediated defenses against the antigen at hand. Helps activate B cells, stimulating humoral immune response. Stimulates the activity of cytotoxic T cells |
| self-nonself complex | Helper T cells recognize and bind to the combination of self and foreign molecules. Displayed on antigen-presenting cell. Two binding sites, one for antigen and one for self-protein |
| antigen-presenting cells | Present foreign antigen to a helper T cell. Ingest microbe and breaks it into fragments. Self protein binds to nonself molecules and displays them on the cell's surface |
| helper T cells | Help activate cytotoxic T cells and macrophages. Help stimulate B cells to produce antibodies |
| cytotoxic T cells | Attack body cells that are infected with pathogens. Only T cells that actually kill infected cells 1. Identify infected cells and binds to infected cell which activates the T cell. T cell synthesizes several new proteins that act on the bound cell, including perforin. 2. Perforin discharged and attaches to infected cell's membrane, making holes in it. T cell enzymes then enter the infected cell and promote its death by apoptosis |
| cell-mediated immune response | Produced by T cells. Battles pathogens that have already entered body cells |
| antigen-binding site | Pair of V regions on antibody |
| secondary immune response | Second exposure to the same antigen. Faster and stronger than the first. Also includes effector and memory cells |
| primary immune response | Initial phase of acquired immunity. When memory cells first created |
| memory cells | B Cells, Smaller number, Remain in lymph nodes, poised to be activated by a second exposure to the antigen |
| plasma cells | Secret antibody molecules, Large amounts of endoplasmic reticulum |
| effector cells | B cells that combat the antigen |
| steps of clonal selection | 1. B cells perceive antigen molecules on receptors. 2. B cells grow, divide and differentiate into two genetically identical yet physically distinct types of cells: Effector Cells, Memory Cells |
| clonal selection | Particular antigen interacts with only a tiny fraction of lymphocytes. Few specific cells proliferate, forming a clone of thousands of cells all specific for stimulating the antigen |
| antigenic determinant | A small surface-exposed region of an antigen where that antibody recognizes and binds to. Antigen binding site is a specific region on the antibody molecule. Lock and key |
| T Cells | Lymphocytes that develop in the thymus |
| B Cells | Lymphocytes that develop in the bone marrow |
| lymphocytes | White blood cells that spend most of their time in the tissues and organs or the lymphatic system. Responsible for the acquired immune response. Originate from stem cells |
| passive immunity | Resulting immunity that a person receives premade. Shot, maternal. Only temporary |
| active immunity | Resulting immunity that an individual makes for himself |
| vaccination | Harmless variant or part of a disease-causing microbe. Vaccine stimulates the immune system to mount defenses against this harmless antigen, so they will also be effective against the actual pathogen |
| antibodies | Protein found in blood plasma that attaches to one particular kind of antigen and helps counter its effects. Antigen-specific. B cells make and secrete antibodies, the proteins that serve as molecular weapons of defense. Antibodies made of 4 polypeptide chains. 2 heavy, 2 light. Recognizes and binds to certain antigen and assists in neutralizing the antigen it recognizes. Antigen-Binding Site. Mark antigens for elimination. Combine with antigens to form an antigen-antibody complex. Trigger mechanisms to neutralize or destroy an invader. Neutralization, agglutination, and precipitation. Enhance phagocytosis and activate compliment system causing cell lysis. Specific recognition-and-attack phase followed by a nonspecific destruction phase |
| antigen | Any foreign molecule that elicits an acquired immune response. System responds with an increase in the number of cells that either attack the invader directly or produce immune proteins called antibodies. Usually do not belong to the host animal. Proteins or large polysaccharides on the surfaces of viruses or foreign cells. Blood cells or tissues from other individuals |
| acquired immunity | Found only in vertebrates. Second line of defense. Set of defenses that are activated only after exposure to pathogens. Differs from individual to individual |
| lymph | Fluid carrying microbes, parts of microbes, and/or their toxins picked up from infection sites anywhere in the body |
| 2 large lymphatic vessels | Thoracic duct. Right lymphatic duct. Fuse with veins in the chest |
| lymphatic system | Involved in both innate and acquired immunity. Branching network of vessels: Resemble veins, One-way valves, Depend on movement of skeletal muscles to squeeze fluid along. Numerous lymph nodes: Rounded organs packed with macrophages and white blood cells (lymphocytes). Returns tissue fluid to the circulatory system and fights infection. Takes up fluid from tissue spaces in the skin |
| defenses used in the inflammatory response | Blood vessels dilate and become leakier, Blood flow to damaged area increases, Blood plasma passes out of the leaky vessels into the interstitial fluid of the affected tissues, Phagocytic white blood cells enter tissue spaces |
| inflammatory response | Damage to tissue triggers the response. 1. Damaged cells release chemical alarm signals such as histamine. 2. Mobilization of various defenses. 3. White blood cells engulf bacteria and remains of any body cells. Can be local or systemic (mono, septic shock) |
| complement system | Group of about 30 different kinds of proteins that circulate in an inactive form in the blood. Act together with other defense mechanisms. Trigger lysis (bursting) of invaders |
| Interferons | Proteins produced by virus-infected cells that help other cells resist viruses. 1. Virus infects cell. 2. Interferon genes in cell's nucleus turned on. 3. Cell makes interferon and dies. 4. Interferon molecules diffuse to neighboring healthy cells. 5. Stimulate production of other proteins that inhibit viral reproduction |
| natural killers (NK) | Not phagocytes. Attack cancer cells and virus-infected cells by releasing chemicals the promote programmed cell death |
| Macrophages | "Big eaters." Large phagocytic cells that wander through the interstitial fluid eating any bacteria and virus-infected cells they encounter |
| Neutrophils | phagocytic white blood cells |
| vertebrate defenses | Innate and acquired immunity. External defenses: Skin and mucous membranes, Nostril hairs filter, Mucus traps, Cilia sweep mucus and any trapped microbes upward and out. Internal defenses: White blood cells, Proteins that either attack microbes directly or impede their reproduction |
| Lysozymes | Enzymes that digest cell walls of many bacteria |
| phagocytosis | Engulfing and destroying foreign substances by forming a vacuole that fuses with a lysosome |
| invertebrate defenses | Rely solely on innate immunity. External defenses. Low pH. Secretion of lysozymes. Phagocytosis. Recognition proteins that bind to molecules found only on the outside of bacteria, fungi and other pathogens |
| innate immunity | First line of defense against potential invaders. Defenses that act the same whether or not an invader has been previously encountered |
| leukemia | Cancer of the white blood cells (Leukocytes). Transplant healthy marrow |
| myeloid | Erythrocytes, other white blood cells, platelets |
| lymphoid | Lymphocytes |
| stem cells | Differentiate into blood cells. In red marrow of bones. Spongy tissue |
| response to an injury | 1. Constriction of damaged blood vessel, reducing blood loss and allowing time for repairs to begin. Platelets adhere to the exposed tissue and release chemicals that make nearby platelets sticky. 2. Cluster of sticky platelets forms a plug that provides fast protection against additional blood loss. Chain of reactions that culminates in the formation of a scab. Enzyme converts fibrinogen to fibrin (threadlike protein). 3. Fibrin traps blood cells and more platelets. Platelets contract, pulling the torn edges closer together and reducing the size of the area in need of repair |
| fibrinogen | Plasma protein |
| white blood cells | Leukocytes. Fight infections and cancer. Some phagocytes. Engulf and digest bacteria and debris from our own dead cells |
| red blood cells | Erythrocytes. Small biconcave disks. Thinner at the center than at the sides. Small size and shape create larger surface area across which oxygen can diffuse. Lack a nucleus, allowing more room for hemoglobin |
| plasma | Liquid that suspends cells in blood. 55% volume of blood. 90% water. Many substrates. Inorganic salts (Ions) Proteins: maintain osmotic balance, buffers. Substances in transit |
| types of pressures in capillaries | Blood pressure. Push fluid outward. Osmotic pressure. Draw fluid into capillary. Blood higher concentration of solutes than interstitial fluid. Blood pressure exceeds osmotic pressure at the upstream end of the capillary. Vice versa and the venous end of the capillary |
| modes of diffusion through capillaries | CO2 and O2 simple diffuse through epithelial cells. Larger molecules carried in vesicles. Water and small solutes move through clefts in the walls |
| precapillary sphincters | Regulate blood flow into branching capillaries. Rings of smooth muscle. Nerve impulses, hormones and chemicals produced locally influence contraction of smooth muscles |
| thoroughfare channel | Capillary, blood streams directly from arteriole to venule. Always open |
| smooth muscles influence blood pressure | Change resistance to blood flow out of the arteries and into arterioles. Regulate distribution of blood to capillaries of the various organs. Dilate and constrict capillaries |
| hypertension | Persistent systolic blood pressure higher than 140 mm Hg and/or diastolic blood pressure higher than 90 mm Hg |
| How does blood return to the heart, especially when it must travel against gravity | Skeletal muscles: Pinch veins and squeeze blood towards heart. One-way valves: Only allow blood to flow towards the heart. Breathing: Change in pressure causes large veins to expand and fill |
| blood velocity | Rate of blood flow. Declines in arterioles, drops to almost zero in capillaries and speeds up in veins |
| causes of blood pressure change | Physical and emotional stress |
| amounts of blood pressure | Highest in the aorta and arteries. Declines abruptly as the blood enters the arterioles, Results from the resistance to blood flow caused by friction between the blood and the large surface area it contacts in the walls of the numerous tiny arterioles |
| diastolic pressure | Elastic arteries snap back, maintaining pressure on the blood and continuous flow of blood into arterioles and capillaries |
| systolic pressure | Ventricle contraction |
| pulse | Rhythmic stretching of the arteries |
| blood pressure | The force that blood exerts against the wall of our blood vessels. Created by the pumping of the heart. Ventricles contract and force blood into the arteries. Stretches the elastic walls of the arteries |
| veins | Thinner-walled. Convey blood back to the heart at low velocity and pressure. Within large veins, flaps of tissue act as one-way valves which permit blood to flow only toward the heart |
| structure of arteries | Regulate blood flow by constricting or relaxing their smooth muscle layer |
| structure of Arteries/Arterioles/Veins/Venules | Thicker walls. Epithelial layer reinforced by two other tissue layers. Outer layer of connective tissue with elastic fibers which enables the vessels to stretch and recoil. Middle layer, smooth muscle |
| structure of capillaries | Very thin wall formed of a single layer of epithelial cells. Wrapped in a thin basal lamina. Inner surface smooth and keeps blood cells from being abraded as they tumble along. Consists of adjoining epithelial cells that enclose a lumen, or space, which is just large enough for red blood cells to tumble through in single file. Walls leaky, narrow clefts between cells making up wall. |
| functions of blood vessels | Supplies oxygenated, nutrient-rich blood. O2 diffuses out of capillary, into interstitial fluid, and into cells. CO2 and wastes diffuse from cells, into interstitial fluid, and into capillaries. Metabolic wastes to the kidneys. Control the makeup of environment in which tissue cells live. Body defense, temperature regulation, and hormone distribution |
| treatments for cardiovascular disease | Clot-dissolving drugs (Aspirin). Angioplasty. Stents. Bypass Surgery. Heart Transplant |
| atherosclerosis | Chronic cardiovascular disease in which arteries become impaired gradually. Plaques develop in inner walls, narrowing the passages. Artery wall thickened and infiltrated with cholesterol and fibrous connective tissue |
| stroke | Death of brain tissue resulting from blockage of arteries in the heard |
| cardiovascular disease | Disorders of the heart and blood vessels |
| heart attack (myocardial infarction) | Damage or death of cardiac muscle tissue as a result of blockage |
| artificial pacemakers | Needed in some kinds of heart disease that damages that pacemaker. Tiny electronic device |
| EKG/ECG | Detect electrical changes in the skin generated by electrical signals in the heart. Can provide information on arrhythmias, etc. |
| pacemaker or SA (sinoatrial) node | Specialized region of cardiac muscle. Sets the rate at which all the muscle cells of the heart contract. Upper wall of the right atrium. 1. Pacemaker generates electrical signals 2. Cardiac muscles electrically connected by specialized junctions between cells spread sign through both atria, making them contract in unison. Signals pass to AV (atrioventricular) node. Located in wall between right atrium and right ventricle. Ensures atria contract and empty before ventricles contract. 3. Cardiac muscle fibers relay signals to apex of the heart. 4. Signals spread though ventricles |
| heart murmur | Defect in one or more of the heart valves. When a stream of blood squirts backward through a valve. Can be replaced with synthetic or organ donor valves |
| Changes in heart valves during cardiac cycles | Open when pushed from one side and close when pushed from the other. Semilunar valves pushed when ventricles contract. Closed when ventricles relaxed. Cause heart sounds heard in stethoscope |
| heart rate | Number of beats per minute |
| cardiac output | Volume of blood that each ventricle pumps per minute |
| systole | Contraction phase of the cardiac cycle. Very brief |
| diastole | Entire heart is relaxed. Blood flows into all four of its chambers. Valves between the atria and the ventricles are open |
| cardiac cycle | Sequence of pumping and filling of the heart |
| inferior vena cava | Brings blood back to the heart from the legs |
| superior vena cava | Brings blood back to the heart from the head |
| aorta | Takes oxygen-rich blood from heart to body |
| pulmonary veins | Take blood from the two lungs to the left atrium |
| pulmonary arteries | Take blood from the right ventricle to the two lungs |
| bird and mammal heart | 4 chambers. 2 atria, 2 ventricles. Essential adaptation to support the high metabolic rate characteristics of birds and mammals |
| systemic circuit | Carries blood between the heart and the rest of the body |
| pulmonary circuit | Carries blood between the heart and gas exchange tissues in the lungs |
| double circulation | Blood pumped first to lungs, then to system |
| pulmocutaneous circuit | Gas exchange occurs both in the lungs and across the thin, most skin |
| amphibian heart | Single circuit would not supply enough pressure to move blood through the capillaries of the lungs then to the systemic capillaries of a terrestrial vertebrate. 3 chambers. 2 atria, 1 partially divided ventricle. Pulmocutaneous Circuit. |
| fish heart | 2 chambers. Single circuit of blood flow. Blood pumped from the ventricle to the gill capillaries then systemic capillaries |
| venules | Small veins |
| capillary beds | Networks of capillaries. Infiltrate every organ and tissue in the body |
| arterioles | Small vessels that give rise to capillaries |
| ventricle | Pumps blood to the arteries |
| atrium | receives blood from the veins |
| capillaries | Convey blood between arteries and veins within each tissue |
| veins | Return blood to the heart |
| arteries | Carry blood away from the heart |
| closed circulatory system (cardiovascular system) | Blood confined to vessels, distinct from interstitial fluid |
| open circulatory system | Fluid pumped through open-ended vessels and flows out among the cells. No distinction between blood and interstitial fluid. Body movements help circulate the fluid as exchange occurs with body cells. Each pore has a valve that closes when the heart contracts, preventing backflow of the circulating fluid |
| true circulatory system | Muscular pump (Heart) Circulatory fluid (Blood) Set of tubes or vessels to carry blood |
| circulatory system | Necessary for an animal whose body is too large or complex for such exchange to occur by diffusion alone. Must bring resources close enough to cells for diffusion to occur |
| hemoglobin | Iron-containing pigment that turns red when bound with O2. Oxygen not very soluble in water; therefore must bind to respiratory pigments. Four polypeptide chains of two different types. Each chain attached to a heme group containing iron. Can carry CO2. Acts as a buffer. Binds with H+ of H2CO3, minimizing change in blood pH. Reaction reversed when blood reaches the lungs |
| partial pressure | Each kind of gas in a mixtures accounts for a portion of the total pressure. Each gas diffuses down the gradient of their own partial pressure independently. Gases diffuse in the capillaries due to pressure |
| how is breathing regulated | 1. Medulla signals muscles of ribs and diaphragm to contract 2. Control center regulates breathing rate in response to changes in the CO2 level of the blood. If pH too low, too much carbonic acid and therefore too much CO2. Increases breathing rate. 3. Secondary control over breathing exerted by sensors in the aorta and carotid arteries that monitor concentrations of O2 and CO2 |
| pons | Smoothes out the basic rhythm of breathing set by the medulla |
| breathing control centers | Located in parts of the brain called the pons and medulla oblongata |
| vital capacity | Maximum volume of air that we can inhale and exhale. Decreases with age or disease |
| negative pressure breathing | Air flows from region of higher pressure to lower pressure. Air rushes through nostrils and into alveoli when diaphragm contracts |
| breathing | Alternate inhalation and exhalation of air |
| smoking | Lung-damaging air pollutants. Microscopic particles of carbon coated with toxic chemicals. Destroys cilia and mucus lining respiratory tract. Frequent coughing is an attempt to clear the mucus no longer moved by cilia. Toxins kill microphages residing in the reparatory tract. Can cause emphysema, lung cancer, cardiovascular disease |
| alveoli | Dead-end grapelike clusters of air sacs. Lined with a thin layer of epithelial cells. O2 in inhaled air dissolves in a film of moisture on the epithelial cells |
| bronchioles | finer tubes |
| bronchi | 2 branches |
| trachea | Windpipe. Rings of cartilage reinforce walls. Lined by moist epithelium covered by cilia and thin film of mucus that clean |
| larynx | Voice box. Holds vocal chords. Can produce sounds by voluntarily tensing muscles in the voice box |
| pharynx | Neck. Contains epiglottis which covers either the windpipe for the throat |
| diaphragm | Sheet of muscle that separates thoracic cavity from abdominal cavity |
| why don't animals that live on land require very efficient respiratory systems? | high concentration of O2 in air, Air lighter, Land animals expend less energy breathing, Loss of water by evaporation |
| countercurrent exchange | Arrangement of the capillaries in a fish gill enhances gas exchange. Blood flows opposite the movement of water past the gills. The transfer of a substance from a fluid moving in one direction to another fluid moving in the opposite direction. Direction of water flow over the surface of a lamella opposite blood flow. As blood picks up more and more O2, it comes in contact with water that is closer to beginning its passage over the gills and thus has more O2 available. Concentration gradient maintained that favors diffusion of O2 from the water to the blood along the entire length of the capillary. 80% efficiency |
| ventilation | Any mechanism that increases the flow of the surrounding water or air over the respiratory surface. Fish moves to ventilate gills: Open mouth |
| lamellae | Plate-like structures projecting from gill filaments. The actual respiratory surfaces on gills |
| structure of fish gills | Four supporting gill arches on each side. Two rows of gill filaments from each gill arch. Lamellae |
| Why do gills have to be very efficient? | O2 dissolved gas in H2O. Only about 3-5%. Surface area much greater than that of the entire animal |
| lungs | Internal sacs lined with moist epithelium. Branch extensively for surface area |
| tracheal system | Extensive system of branching internal tubes. Smallest branches exchange gases directly with body cells. Gas exchange in insects requires no assistance from the circulatory system. Tiny branching tubes inside the body to decrease evaporation. Tubes branch repeatedly. Smallest branches = tracheoles. End contain fluid for diffusion. Largest branches = tracheae |
| gills | Extensions of the body surface specialized for gas exchange. O2 diffuses across the gill surfaces into the capillaries. And CO2 diffuses in the opposite direction. Live in water, moist not a problem |
| whole body respiration | Oxygen diffuses through the skin into a dense net of thin-walled capillaries lying just beneath the skin. Must live in damp places to keep respiration surfaces moist. No specialized gas exchange surfaces. Generally small, long, thin or flattened. High ratio or respiratory surface to body volume |
| four types of respiratory organs | Skin, Gills, Tracheal system, lungs |
| respiratory system | Part of an animal where gases are exchanged with the environment. Made up of living cells whose plasma membranes must be wet to function properly. Extensive surface area to take up O2 and release CO2. Usually single layer of cells |
| Stages of gas exchange | 1. Breathing: large, moist surface. 2. Transport of gases by the circulatory: O2 attaches to hemoglobin. 3. Exchange of gases with body cells: Body takes up O2 from the blood and releases it CO2 to the blood |
146 cards - created jan 31, 8:41pm